2.0 Public Participation Background
2.1 What is it and where did it come from?
History
In ancient times, public space was the realm of all people, even
slaves. Civic space was the realm of the "civilians"
of the city; slaves were not permitted. These spaces included
city buildings and gardens and other places of civic activity.
Today, it is assumed that "public" space is the realm
of all people and includes all public property and information.
Public participation, as we know it today, is an extension of the civil rights and other rights movements of the 1960's. As people became more aware of their power to change elements of their society, they began to demand consultation and involvement in the decision making process of their communities. (Connor 1981: 209)
Both Sadler (1979)
and Smith (1979) agree that the public's
dissatisfaction with the role they were permitted to play in the
planning of their communities arose from two main factors:
1. The increased alienation of the public created by the rising remoteness and concentration of the governmental authority and;
2. The dehumanizing of the community with uncontrolled advancements in technology and business and its impacts on the public's daily life.
The public began to realize the paternalistic nature of their politicians and leaders. They grew tired of the decision makers basing their choices entirely on their own expertise and the idea that as leaders, they knew what was best for the community (Sanoff 2000: ix). As more and more mistakes were made in the planning of their communities, people began to question not only the outcomes of the decisions but also how these decisions were made (Sadler 1979: 8).
Today the issue is not whether or not planners and politicians will implement public participation. In most cases, the law requires it. However, people are not always satisfied with the legal provisions of public participation and feel it is up to them where, when, and how their opinions and ideas will be used. The issue now is how much participation and where in the process it should be allocated.
But the increase in public participation today is not entirely due to citizen uproar and demand. It is also due, in part, to planners' and politicians' honest desire to better represent the feelings and concerns of the public as well as a need to gain information that only the public can provide. Planners are becoming more aware that local traditional knowledge is necessary to truly understand the complexity and nuances of a community.
"Urban planners discovered that people have a great deal of knowledge about their neighbourhoods and are full of suggestions for solving problems." (Smith 1979: 75)
Public participation can provide a wealth of ideas. Planners now realize that people have insightful and educated ideas about their communities. Public participation has, in some cases, turned from a required legal element to an integral part of the planning process that not only provides a venue for citizens to voice their opinions but also a resource for planners and others to gain ideas, understanding, and information about a community.
Defined
pub-lic (pub´ lik) adj. Pertaining to or affecting the people or community; for everyone's use; widely or well known.
par-tic-i-pate (pär´ tis i pat´) v. To join in or share; to take part. participant n. participation n. participator n.
(Webster's Dictionary, Tenth Eddition, 1995.)
There are as many definitions of public participation as there are community members. Because of this, it can be difficult to define exactly what constitutes participation by the public. Not only can the definition change among the people in the community, but it can also vary depending on the issue at hand and the environment of the decision (Sanoff 2000: 8).
"Public participation is any activity that enables citizens to influence decisions that will have an impact on their lives." Marjorie Willison, Garden Consultant, Community Activist (Focus Group Results, see Appendix B)
Sanoff defines public participation as "...the collaboration of people pursuing objectives that they themselves have defined." (2000: x). Willeke says it is when "...persons outside the planning agency, including the lay public, are involved in the planning of public facilities and programs..." (1974).
Definitions reflect a wide spectrum of views and range from including the public in every step along the process to getting the public's reaction when the decision is close to being made. Public participation is not allowing the public to react to an already made decision, but neither is it involving the public extensively in every single aspect of the planning process. Whatever the definition, it is common to the process of public participation for every one involved to have different desires and aspirations for its outcome. Thus, public participation is rarely simple or straightforward. It is a complex organization of activities and processes during which the concerns, problems, ideas and issues of the public are addressed.
Types
"Beyond its aura of fashionable necessity, public participation can be enlightening or repressive, creative or stifling, empowering or simply manipulative." (Palermo 1999: 1)
Just as there are many definitions of public participation, there are also many types. In different areas of the planning process, alternate types are employed based on the desired goals at that time.
Planning falls into three broad categories. These three types show the varying range of issues that face the city and rural communities alike.
visioning - regional (global): This type is broad and general. There is not necessarily a clearly defined problem. It is for gaining overall knowledge of the city and its needs. It is about "visioning" a future for the city and coming up with early ideas about what actions will steer the city toward the defined vision. It is an expansive type of planning and when an issue is of a global proportions, this type becomes even more broad as it encompasses visioning for the entire planet.
community planning - community: This type is more directed than visioning. It addresses more specific issues and is concerned with a more defined area. A neighbourhood or community has a defined issue that it must address.
planning amendment - specifics: This kind of planning involves changing already present legislation. It is a very defined process. It is usually fast and because it affects few people, fewer become involved.
For each of the planning types, a different kind of public participation is used to achieve the most useful and productive public input. Or, in many cases, several different types of public participation are used during one planning process. Many ways exist in which the public can be involved. Public participation can take the form of any of the four following definitions (Palermo 1999):
exploratory - The issue or problem is not entirely clear; it has not been defined. The public aids the planner in determining it. Takes the form of workshops, design events, or focus groups. This type of public participation is beneficial when used in a visioning type of planning. It can help planners determine what the public feels are the issues facing the city and their communities.
passive - Information is given or taken. Planners educate the public on an issue or concern or planners get information about an issue from the public. It can take the form of presentations, newsletters, seminars, or a website. This type of public participation is usually implemented in the initial phase of any planning process. It is used to make sure everyone involved is up to speed on the facts.
reactive - The public reacts to a proposal by planners; this is a more focused type of public participation. It is concerned with a very defined proposal. This type of public input usually occurs further into the planning process. An issue has been defined, some ideas have been put forth for action, and now planners must gain the public's input on the possible solution or action they have come up with. If the proposal is accepted, then the action stage will follow, if it is declined, then alternative ideas must be evaluated.
active - The public takes an active role in making the decision as well as in implementing the decision. The participation doesn't end when the decision is made, the public continues to be involved in making it work. This type of public participation is found at the final stages of the planning process. Here, the public's input decides the action to be taken and they are directly involved in that action.
No matter what the stage or type, two way communication in all stages of planning and within all types of public involvement is vital (Connor 1979). While providing information is part of the public participation process, it never ends there. The public must always be able to react to the information they are presented and give their ideas.
Stages
Public participation
consists of many stages and steps. It is an on-going process,
never a single event (Connor 1979: 210).
This continuous nature of public participation is what makes it
so difficult to determine what types of participation to use and
when to use them.
Sanoff (2000:
10) identifies five questions that must be addressed when
developing a public participation program:
who? - who will be involved? (a particular community, the entire city)
what? - what are the program's goals? (identify ideas, gain information)
where? - where should the program lead? (desired outcomes)
when? - when in the planning process should the program be implemented?
how? - how should people involved? what kinds of activities should be used?
Answering these questions will help determine what kinds of public participation methods should be used as well as when to use them.
Generally, the process
of seeking public input is made up of six stages (Connor
1979: 1):
introduction or start-up: At this stage, planners do their initial research and make initial contacts. They determine their public participation program staff and begin determining types of public participation to be used and locations for programs. An initial informative brochure is distributed to all those affected by action.
initial data collection: Here, planners begin to obtain data about the community or region involved. Information such as community goals, issues, concerns, knowledge of the study, as well as statistical data on the area itself such as populations, occupations, housing types, or other needed data.
education: Planners now inform all the public of the information they have obtained from their initial data collection and present it or distribute is to the public for their evaluation of accuracy. Conversely, the public presents its knowledge and expertise to the planners. The public prioritizes the list of issues and begins to work with planners to determine the best solutions and actions.
response: Once issues have been prioritized and possible solutions have been identified, planners may now construct a proposal based on stage 3 and present it to the public. Possible solutions are weighted and evaluated.
decision: At this stage, a decision is made that best meets the needs and desires of the public. The decision is based on the initial research as well as the public's response to the proposals.
evaluation: The participation process is evaluated for effectiveness and productivity. Participants evaluate their own satisfaction not only with the decision that was made but also with how the decision was made.
The actual activities that take place during each stage can vary. It depends mainly on the issue or problem being addressed as well as the people involved. For example, if the people directly affected are young families, a good way to ensure participation is through the involvement of children such as children's perception of the neighbourhood or their desires for the community.
2.2 Who is using
it and why?
Public participation
can be used by anyone wishing to understand the views of citizens
on any range of issues or topics or anyone wishing to gain information
about the public itself. This can include a range of organizations
from commercial companies to governments.
Historically, the main reason for seeking public input was to
quell social upheaval. While this is still an underlying reason,
intentions behind seeking public participation in the planning
process have become many and more positive.
The city belongs to
everyone. This is what makes it a community, something beyond
the physical. It is a shared venture. And its its citizens know
best what it needs. This is the overall purpose for seeking public
input. Connor (1979) specifically identifies
several reasons to seek the public's input:
to tap in on the public's traditional knowledge base
to use the public's expertise in the field of technology
to use the public's creative capacity for ideas
to get data on desires, needs, values, preferences, and priorities from the public
to ensure low levels of upheaval from the public
to educate the public on various issues
In today's planning process, the "why?" of public participation is generally understood, known, and accepted. It is the "how?" that is still being grappled with. Just stating why the public's input is crucial is not enough. Determining how their input will be successfully and accurately obtained is vital.
2.3 What elements
can lead to its success or failure?
There are many
elements that create a successful and productive public participation
program and several factors that can lead to failures. Generally,
the keys to success include (Connor 1981,
Focus Group Survey: see Appendix B):
There can be some drawbacks
to public participation including things like time consumption,
conflicts, and hostility, especially if the program has not been
properly designed or timed. Activities that can often lead to
failures include: (Connor 1981, Focus
Group Survey 2000: see Appendix B):
Gaining public input is complex. It must be open, accessible, and representative of the public's true views, desires and needs. It cannot be rushed, but it must not be an endless process. Communication, information and representation are key to its success.
2.4 What is its future?
There are many
more predictions concerning the future of the Internet than concerning
the future of public participation. Currently, public participation
programs possess many problems and issues that can keep communities
from reaching their true goals. Because these problems revolve
around issues of group dynamics, information access and attitudes,
future public participation must move toward improving these facets
of public participation.
Determining the future of public participation lies within determining the future of communications and information. Investigating the Internet (as a new communications tool) will begin to show the future public participation.